A critical review of research and literature exploring the relationship of the child with the natural world. more

School of Education - Continuing Professional Development An Exploration of the Relationship of the Child with the Natural World Rowena Kenny 2010 rowenakenny@hotmail.com Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com Abstract This critical review analyses current research and literature exploring the relationship of the child with the natural world. Tracing an evolutionary and historical context, the reviewer explores how this relationship has changed in Western industrialised culture. Following an exploration of relevant child development theory, Ecopsychology and Biofilia, the reviewer investigates the evidence of growing dissociation of children from the natural environment. The reviewer explores the tension experienced for young children between their biological drives and the socio political context of modern culture. The reviewer concludes with an analysis of the theory of Nature Deficit Disorder which investigates a possible link between reduced opportunities for children to access nature and increasing levels of mental ill health and obesity. This theory provides a compelling case of the need for the ‘renaturing’ of childhood and calls for urgent further research to investigate the impact on well being and development of a ‘denatured childhood’ Ethics Statement This review was conducted in accordance with the Bath Spa University’s Code of Ethics and UK copyright law. No primary research was carried out as part of this review, so child protection procedures were not required. Written image permission was previously obtained by the reviewer to use the photographs included in the presentation which accompanies this critical commentary for the purposes of further research and training. Citations and references were included in relation to the requirements of copyright legislation. Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com This critical review explores current research and literature investigating the following questions relating to the relationship of the child with the natural world: - What is the historical and evolutionary context of the child-nature relationship? What insight can child development theory bring to an understanding of the child-nature relationship? - Does it matter that children in a Western industrialised context encounter less direct experiences with nature? The reviewer has 7 years of outdoor practice experience with young children which has provided a rich context for observing children’s behaviour with nature. In one context, when working with pre school children with autism and other inclusion support needs, the reviewer observed high levels of involvement and a reduction of challenging behaviour demonstrated by these children, when outdoors (Kenny, 2007). Furthermore the quality of involvement and attunement with nature demonstrated by these children conveyed a strong relational dimension to the natural world which the researcher sought to investigate further (Kenny, 2007). At a biological level, humans (as primates) are part of and depend on the natural world; living within biological ecosystems in relationship with other life (Lovelock, 2000). The theory of evolution suggests that humans evolved from other primates and that the process of evolution continues across all species (Darwin,1859/1996) Holland (2009) reminds us that most humans have until recently been living in close relationship with the earth and natural rhythms for thousands of years on an ‘everyday living level’ (Holland, 2009, 16). Adopting an ethological perspective, the American biologist, Edward Wilson (1984) developed a theory of biofilia, suggesting Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com that all living things, including humans, have an innate need to ‘affiliate’, to be, with other forms of life. Plotkin (2003) identifies that this need to affiliate with nature is deep within the human psyche and that culturally humanity has moved through the agrarian and industrial revolutions to the modern post industrial context over a relatively short time span of several hundred years. Biologically however, humans retain the same fundamental drives of our indigenous ancestors and still rely on natural systems (Dawkins, 1976/1990). However as explored by Fuchs (1979) significant advances in medicine, sanitation and housing have delivered strong health benefits in industrialised countries which provide essential context to this discourse. What then are the implications for human ‘young’ of the evolving human relationship with nature and how does the tension between basic biological drives and the socio political context of modern culture influence children’s lives and development? Rousseau (1762/1979) suggested that children were closer in relationship to nature than adults because they are freer of cultural influences. Froebel (Weston, 1998) recognised the importance of experience in nature for children’s development, establishing the concept of the Kindergarten (children’s garden). Other 20th century educational pioneers including Macmillan (Knight, 2009), Steiner (1922) and Malaguzzi (1993) advocated outdoor experiences and play as a key feature of their pedagogy. However during the mid 20th century, inspite of the influence of these pedagogies, the dominant discourse was that of the elementary tradition which advocated formal teaching indoors (Bilton, 2002). Within this context, modern child development theory viewed the natural world as subsidiary in influence on the child’s context and development. Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com This position included the work of developmental psychologist Piaget (1896 –1980) whose individual constructivist theory identified 5 stages which he suggested were innate and universal (Piaget, 1962/1972). The psychoanalytic movement challenged Piaget’s theory and central to this thinking was the importance of the need for children to develop secure emotional attachment to a primary carer to optimise healthy emotional development Bowlby (1988/2005). Winnicott (1953) extended this theory to include the value of child attachment to ‘transitional objects’ but not the wider environment. Social constructivists including Bruner (1960/2003) extended developmental theory to include the influence of the social context on child development. However the potential influence of the natural environment holds nominal significance in these discourses. Building on his multiple intelligences theory, Gardner (1983/1993) later added a further ‘naturalistic intelligence’ in recognition of observational evidence which indicated some children’s ability to demonstrate high levels of ecological literacy (Gardner,2000). Orr (1992) identifies ecological literacy as a key intelligence, in terms of developing the future sustainability of human life on earth. However Sobel (1996) argues that in fact the often environmental doom based rhetoric of education for sustainability can lead to a subtle form of dissociation and that through making children so aware of and feeling responsible for the world’s problems, they can in fact become emotionally cut off and less likely to live an eco literate life. Van Matre (1990) suggests that eco literacy is best developed through a hands on approach which inspires, awakens the senses and builds a positive relationship with nature. By contrast, in many indigenous cultures, relationship with the natural world is viewed as integral to well being and development such that ‘indigenous children do not see Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com themselves as individuals but rather members within their extended family’ (Anning et al, 2004: 86) and have ‘an intimate, familial attachment’ with nature (Louv, 2005: 19). Brendro (1990/2002) in an exploration of Native American pedagogy notes that relationship and belonging are central principles developing intimacy across all relationships including with the natural world. Roszak (1992) pioneered the development of ecopsychology which is ‘the study of how ecology interacts with the human psyche’ (Louv, 2005). Roszak (1992) suggests that through ignoring the ecological dimension, modern psychology has separated the inner and outer life, repressing our ‘ecological unconscious’ and leading to a deep level dissociation in human relationships between people and other life. Reed (1996) argues that in modern urban society we are loosing our ability to experience the world directly with our senses, leading to an impoverished experience in daily life. Louv (2005) identified that within the last few decades the way that modern children ‘understand and experience nature has changed radically’ (Louv, 2005, 1). Plotkin (2003) highlights the irony that although children in Western industrialised countries now know more about the world, they now have a less intimate relationship with nature than in the past. Gill (2007) argues that we are living in a risk averse society with ‘shrinking horizons of childhood’ Gill (2007: 12) where children are actively taught to dissociate from nature due to adult fear. This enculturalisation of children, argues Louv (2005), has led to a situation where children are now so disconnected from nature, they idealise it, associate it with fear and aversion or are ambivalent. It can be argued that as we are living in an increasingly urban context, that a connection with the natural environment is now less important and it is preferable for children to be engaged with a curriculum which prepares them for the modern urban Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com workplace (Brendtro, 1997). However the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) DCSF (2007) recognises the importance of the outdoor environment for optimal learning and development and represents a significant shift in thinking compared to the National Curriculum of the elementary tradition (Bruce, 2008). However, Anning and Fleer (2004) explore the tension between this child centred rhetoric and the political ‘standards agenda’ (Anning and Fleer, 2004:5) which remains the dominant discourse in the UK and is a key factor why access to outdoor environments remains limited for young children. Palmer (2007) and Louv (2005) explore the potential relationship between the growing physical and emotional health problems of children including obesity, depression and attention deficit disorders and reduced outdoor play opportunites. In response to this research, Louv (2005) developed the theory of Nature Deficit Disorder (NDD): ‘NDD describes the human costs of alienation from nature, among them: diminished use of the senses, attention difficulties and higher rates of physical and emotional illnesses’ (Louv, 2005: 36) Louv (2005) observes that ‘dysfunctional environmental relations’ are not recognised or even considered by the American Psychiatric Association (Louv, 2005:44). Yet Moore (1997) suggests that ‘children live through their senses’, and therefore ‘play with the outdoor environment through the senses in their own space and time is essential for healthy development’ (Moore, 1997:203). This theory is supported by recent developments in brain research which have identified the neurological link between active outdoor play and healthy brain development in children (Ouvry, 2003). Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com Both Native American pedagogy and the New Zealand Te Whariki curriculum place belonging and attachment to people and place as central to emotional health and development (Knight, 2009). The EYFS (DCSF, 2007) by contrast aims to support positive relationships but takes a utilitarian position of nature as a context for learning and does not recognise the value of a positive relationship to place and nature. This investigation has mapped the evolutionary, historical and global context of the nature-child relationship to present Western industrialised society. Through analysis of child development and attachment theory, alongside theories of biofilia, ecopsychology and ethology this discourse highlights the contemporary dissociation from nature experienced by children growing up within the dominant Western cultural paradigm. Whilst it can be argued that due to our increasingly urban context a childnature relationship is not important, the evidence of the impact on well being and development for many children of a ‘denatured childhood’ (Moore, 1997) necessitates further research of the theory of Nature Deficit Disorder (Louv, 2005). In a context where human cultural development has outpaced our biological evolution, the tension between these conflicting dimensions is felt particularly by young children. That is not to say that we need look back at our indigenous past through rose tinted glasses, but that it is timely to consider our ecological context and relationship with the rest of nature. For the reviewer, this analysis has reawakened a commitment to continue to develop facilitation of experiences in nature with children to help reawaken the child-nature reunion and to ‘know our place in the family of things’ (Mary Oliver, 1994) Word count excluding References 1614 words Copyright Rowena Kenny 2010: rowenakenny@hotmail.com References Anning, A and Cullen,J and Fleer, M. (eds) (2004) Early Childhood Education:Society and Culture. London: Sage Bang, M et al. (2007) Cultural Mosaics and Mental Models of Nature. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2007 - 210.193.216.98. Available at http://210.193.216.98/cps/rde/papp/SID-0B582CE30F1D8013/techAdvice:techAdvice/http://www.pnas.org/content/104/35/13868.full.pdf+html [Accessed 24.04.10] Bilton, H. (ed). 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